School is the second most important educational agency after the family. In contemporary society, in most parts of the world, it is not only the primary educational agency, but attendance is an inviolable right of the individual, as stated in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Although the right to education and the widespread presence of schools are taken for granted, this was not always the case. Indeed, until the late nineteenth century, large segments of the population lacked the right to education, so much so that in 1861, the illiteracy rate in Italy exceeded 70%.
Compulsory school
The Casati law (1859) which established compulsory schooling until the age of eight and the Coppino law (1877) which increased compulsory schooling to nine years of age were of little use. Both were promulgated with the aim of extending schooling as much as possible but due to evident difficulties in enforcing the actual compulsory schooling they envisaged, the limited diffusion of school buildings, the poor preparation of teachers and the need, on the part of the population, to exploit to the maximum the workforce that could be exercised by children in order to optimise production, mainly agricultural, they did not bring the desired results.
From Compte to the new school
With his 1830 text "Course of Positive Philosophy," Auguste Comte paved the way for industrialized Europe to embrace Positivism , a movement characterized by complete faith in the results and methods of experimental science. Positivism also influenced education, which, from the late nineteenth century onward, not only gave greater prominence to scientific disciplines but also used scientific progress to improve educational programs. In Abbotsholme, England, in 1889, Cecil Reddie launched the New Schools movement. The New Schools were institutions aimed at adolescents of bourgeois/noble backgrounds. They were often located outside the city in rural areas. They were strongly influenced by the positivist climate of the time and aimed to train a prominent individual who would serve as a leader in the new positivist society.
This ultimate goal was achieved through rigorous discipline, the study of the humanities and sciences, experiential learning, and a connection to nature. These experimental institutes arose in major European countries such as France, Germany, and Italy. In Italy, due to widespread illiteracy, the New Schools were aimed at a broader segment of the population and offered a basic education while incorporating the same innovations as the European New Schools.
Dewey's School
In those years, the renowned pragmatist philosopher John Dewey was active in the United States, praising yet criticizing the New Schools. While appreciating their innovations, he did not see them as a place where children could fully express themselves. Essentially, according to the philosopher, what was missing was a focus on "true experience." (Experience and Education, 1938)
The author is recognized as the founder of pedagogical activism, a school of thought that, following the New Schools movement, conceived of a child-centered school that aimed to offer a practically oriented education (through concrete experiences and laboratory activities), that developed a desire to learn, that placed the child at the center of the learning process, and that was directed toward democratic ideals. Dewey's experience, which materialized in an experimental school established in Chicago in 1896, did not fail to impress many other American and European authors, who proposed their own pedagogical ideas, giving rise to important educational experiences.
Certainly the most significant figure in this regard was Maria Montessori, who, in 1907 in Rome, founded the first Casa dei bambini, an activist school where she perfected the method that made her world-famous. With Maria Montessori (and other authors such as Claparèdè and Decroly), education and medicine merged to create a scientifically grounded pedagogy that allowed for the identification and experimentation of new learning strategies. Pedagogical activism spread to many European countries, with varying nuances, profoundly impacting the evolution of schools.
Conveying party ideology
With totalitarianism, however, schools began to be used by regimes to convey party ideology. Consider, for example, the objectives proposed by Giovanni Gentile in the famous 1923 reform that transformed and regulated Italian schools with the aim of creating a fascist society.
The end of World War II and the slow economic and social recovery led to an ever-increasing focus on schooling as an important tool for cultural and social progress. The emergence of mass schooling potentially allowed everyone to have access to free education, even though society was not egalitarian. Figures such as Don Milani and Ivan Illich were particularly critical of mass schooling, arguing that it was not egalitarian and, in fact, promoted social inequality.
In his "Letter to a Teacher," Don Milani specifically denounced the condition of Italian schools, defining them as " hospitals that treat the healthy and reject the sick." Similarly, Illich was convinced that a radical deschooling was necessary (Deschooling Society. Is a Society Without School Possible?) , meaning the elimination of school as an institution and the creation of various types of networking initiatives to replace it.
The modern school
Gradually, as we approach the third millennium, progress in educational curricula is evident. Modern schools are open to all, enabling everyone to earn a qualification that can be used effectively, and are geared toward inclusion. The concept of inclusion is crucial to a precise description of modern schools. It's fair to say that Western schools have reached an optimal level; this hasn't yet been achieved in many developing countries, although various education reports compiled in recent decades and the ongoing work of international organizations are gradually aiming to narrow this gap and, however utopian, guarantee the right to education worldwide.
Andrea Zampieri
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- Count A.; “Positive Philosophy Course”, UTET, 1979
- Dewey J.; “Experience and Education”, Raffaello Cortina Editore, 2014
- Illich I.; Deschooling Society. Is a Society Without Schools Possible? mimesis, 2019
- Barbiana School; “Letter to a Teacher”, Mondadori, 2017
