Gender Equality: A Comparative Documentary Analysis

Talking about equality today inevitably means grappling with the gender issue. It's not just a "category" of equality, but the test against which the true strength of our democracies is measured. To understand its scope, it's necessary to break down the concept into its foundational dimensions.

What is gender equality?

Gender equality means equal rights, opportunities, and treatment for women and men, eliminating all discrimination. Women's empowerment is the process of giving women and girls the power and ability to make decisions, control their own lives, and influence social change through self-esteem, access to resources, and active participation in public, political, and economic life, to build a more just society. Gender equality is therefore the result and necessary condition for women's empowerment to be fully realized, creating more peaceful, prosperous, and inclusive societies for all.

The most complex challenge lies in substantive equality. As indicated in Goal 5 of the United Nations 2030 Agenda, equality is achieved not only by law, but by removing material obstacles such as the asymmetric distribution of unpaid care work. True equality requires welfare policies that promote the sharing of all responsibilities. Furthermore, gender equality should not be understood as "homologation" to the male model. The most advanced perspective, often discussed in UN Women forums (the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women), suggests that equality is achieved only when differences are valued and respected in their specificity. Equality means having the same value and decision-making power, without having to give up one's identity or conform to seemingly neutral standards, but historically tailored to men.

Why strategic documents?

There are many ongoing processes working in this direction, and above all, many strategic documents that substantiate and guide policies toward this state of equality, desirable for the rule of law and the democratic processes that should unfold within it. While practical action and daily routines can make a difference, knowledge of the strategic documents addressing the topic can help decision makers gain a clear vision of the direction in which national and supranational legislators have moved and/or are moving. Having a normative and multisemic foundation that allows for the implementation of targeted actions contextualizes and simultaneously makes the strategic documents' proposals binding.

To contribute to the debate and provide insight into the different ways in which some “crucial” issues are addressed, this essay proposes a comparative reading of three key documents, relating each dimension of the first proposed document (Agenda 2030 – GOAL 5) to what is contained in the subsequent ones, explaining the different emphasis that different documents place on the same themes.

The documents selected for the comparative analysis are the following:

1. Agenda 2030 – GOAL 5: Achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls . This goal (GOAL) is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs ) established by the UN to promote sustainable development globally by 2030. It is not limited to ensuring formal equality before the law, but aims at the emancipation (or empowerment, a term that indicates greater strength, self-esteem and awareness) of women and girls in all areas of life. The specific objectives associated with GOAL 5 include the elimination of discrimination (end all forms of discrimination and violence against women and girls, including sexual exploitation and early marriage); the recognition of care work (recognize and value unpaid care work (domestic and family) through public services, infrastructure and social policies); leadership equity ( ensure women's full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of political, economic, and public decision-making); reproductive rights (ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health services); and enabling technologies (strengthen the use of technologies, particularly information and communications technologies, to promote women's empowerment).

2. NRRP. The Italian National Recovery and Resilience Plan considers gender equality as a cross-cutting priority (gender mainstreaming), not limited to a single measure, but integrated across all six of its missions. The NRRP's measures primarily aim to reduce the gender gap in the labor market, foster female entrepreneurship, and promote work-life balance. Mission 1, in particular, aims to ensure equal opportunities in employment, career progression, and work-life balance. Mission 4 proposes the Nursery School Plan, the extension of full-time schooling, and increasing skills in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) for female students. Mission 5 presents support for female entrepreneurship and the introduction of the national gender equality certification system. Mission 6 focuses on strengthening local services.

3. National Strategy for Gender Equality. The National Strategy for Gender Equality 2021-2026 is consistent with the EU strategy and is based on a long-term vision of values, policies , and goals in terms of gender equality. It begins with an analysis of the Italian situation in terms of equality, compared with other European Union countries, and takes into account both the cultural and legislative contexts most similar to ours, as well as the most advanced realities regarding gender equality. The Strategy focuses on five priorities in the following areas: work, income, skills, time, and power. General objectives have been identified for each of these priorities. These objectives are, for work: reducing the gender employment gap by increasing female participation in the workforce, with particular attention to the inclusion of female parents and female entrepreneurship. For income: reducing gender pay gaps, particularly in the private sector and for positions requiring a medium-high level of technical and managerial skills. For skills: ensure equal access to and development of mathematical and scientific skills to reduce gender disparity in schools. For time: reduce the burden of parenting and caregiving, primarily borne by mothers, and promote a more equitable division of these tasks between genders, including by ensuring accessible and high-quality childcare services. For power: promote greater and more equitable female representation in economic leadership roles.

Why a comparative reading?  

A comparative reading of these strategic documents ensures an integrated approach that addresses gender inequalities on multiple fronts simultaneously: regulatory, financial, cultural, and structural. The effectiveness of this work stems from the combination of different levels of intervention, including overcoming formal equality (Article 3, paragraph 1, of the Italian Constitution). While the law guarantees equality, these instruments aim for substantive equality, as defined by the 2030 Agenda and the Italian Constitution. They recognize that changing laws is not enough; it is also necessary to remove the concrete economic and social obstacles that limit women. Comparative analysis allows for the combination of rules and economic incentives.

For example, the "National Strategy" defines the objectives, while the PNRR provides the financial resources to achieve them. In particular, the PNRR highlights the combined use of multiple tools. These include business incentives , the Gender Equality Certification , which is not just a label, but an economic tool that rewards virtuous companies with tax breaks and competitive advantages in tenders, creating an economic incentive to be gender-equal, and structural investments , including funds for daycare centers and care services, as strategic investments aimed at addressing the root of the problem, freeing up precious time for women and allowing them to fully participate in the labor market.

These tools should enable action on systemic causes. Indeed, they do not simply correct the effects of discrimination, but target the root causes, such as cultural biases and educational segregation (promoting STEM subjects). In short, their strategic nature lies in the fact that they act as an interconnected ecosystem, where political vision (Strategy) meets economic resources (NRRP) and practical tools (Certification) to generate structural and lasting change in society.

How the analysis was done

Starting from the 2030 Agenda-GOAL 5 and its five objectives, the contents of the other two instruments (NRRP and National Strategy) were functionally reconstructed. The choice of the United Nations 2030 Agenda as the guiding document was based on its more "desirable" description of the development goals than national instruments such as the NRRP or the National Strategy. Its intrinsically global, holistic, and universal nature makes it an ideal vision and a superior framework for all countries.

The 2030 Agenda is an action plan signed by all 193 UN member countries. This gives it a moral authority and scope that national documents cannot have. It is not an imposed plan, but a voluntary and shared commitment that represents a collective vision for the future. It is composed of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 interconnected targets. It covers all dimensions of development: economic, social, environmental, and institutional. National plans, such as the Italian PNRR, are specific, limited to a defined geographical and temporal context, and focus on more immediate priorities (e.g., post-pandemic recovery), whereas the 2030 Agenda offers a comprehensive, long-term framework (until 2030). Furthermore, the Agenda's goals go beyond mere economic growth to focus on human well-being and the health of the planet. They include urgent challenges such as fighting poverty (Goal 1), access to clean water (Goal 6) and climate action (Goal 13).

This broad and non-negotiable vision makes them intrinsically more "desirable" than plans that must address the political realities and financial resources of a single state. National documents, such as the PNRR and the National Strategy, are operational tools that draw inspiration from and map their actions onto the objectives of the 2030 Agenda. In short, the 2030 Agenda represents the global consensus on the future we want, while the national instruments are pragmatic action plans to contribute to that vision. The tables show, for each of the objectives of the 2030 Strategy-GOAL 5, the similar and/or explanatory content provided in the other strategic documents analyzed, allowing for a comprehensive reflection that contributes to the ongoing debate regarding the best possible implementation of a global strategy for equal opportunities.

The analysis and its results

A) Agenda 2030 – GOAL 5.1

Achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls. Goal 5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere and 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking for prostitution, sexual exploitation and other forms of exploitation.

A comparative analysis of the table's content highlights a structured and multifaceted approach to addressing gender equality, combining strategic vision and operational tools. Strategic coherence and alignment are evident. The table shows a mapping that begins with the global objective of the 2030 Agenda (Column 1) and translates into specific and funded national instruments, such as the PNRR (Column 2) and the National Strategy (Column 3). This ensures that local actions contribute to a shared international commitment. The use of financial and market levers is a strength. Gender equality certification, tax incentives, tax relief, and subsidized credit transform gender equality from an ethical imperative to an economic advantage for businesses. The National Strategy addresses specific Italian issues, such as the disadvantage of new mothers and the need for flexibility (smart working), demonstrating good relevance to the national context.

The main critical issue is the restriction of the broad objective 5.1 of the 2030 Agenda almost exclusively to the employment and economic sphere. Measures to combat gender-based violence, discrimination in other contexts (health, non-executive politics) or reproductive rights are not present, but refer to separate action plans that sometimes interact poorly. Furthermore, the evaluation of indirect impacts (e.g. "Interventions that have effects on income redistribution") requires complex methodologies (such as Gender Budgeting) that are not always easy to apply uniformly, leaving room for interpretation. The approach based on economic incentives may be effective in the short term, but may not address the deep cultural factors and gender stereotypes that are the root of inequalities, requiring a long-term commitment that goes beyond the duration of the PNRR (2026). In summary, the documents offer a robust plan for economic empowerment, but they lack direct action to address all the challenges the issue poses.

B) Agenda 2030 – GOAL 5.3

Achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls. Goal 5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, forced and arranged marriage, and female genital mutilation.

The lack of specific guidance in the PNNR and Strategy documents highlights a crucial point in the debate on current gender policies: the disconnect between formal objectives, practical implementation, and transparent reporting. This highlights the public sector's difficulty integrating a gender perspective at all levels.

The NRRP's resources for gender equality often cut across other objectives (such as employment or education), making it difficult to isolate specific measures for highly vertical targets like 5.3. The table represents an ideal governance model, but the difficulty in finding the relevant information in other documents highlights a gap between political intent (objectives) and the transparency and effectiveness of their practical reporting.

It should be noted, however, that other strategic documents exist for the implementation of Objective 5.3, particularly the National Strategic Plan on Male Violence against Women , a document that integrates actions against forced marriages and FGM into policies for the prevention and protection of victims. The National Strategic Plan on Male Violence against Women articulates a thorough understanding of these practices, explicitly recognizing that female genital mutilation (FGM) and forced marriages are not isolated or purely criminal phenomena, but rather represent extreme manifestations of deeply rooted social and cultural norms, historically geared towards controlling female sexuality and the bodily autonomy of women and girls. An effective response requires a multidimensional approach that includes cultural prevention, i.e., the need to address the deep roots of gender stereotypes and inequalities.

The document also highlights the need for integrated support to ensure protection, social inclusion, and economic independence for victims, through the network of anti-violence centers. Finally, it emphasizes the effectiveness of interinstitutional cooperation, namely coordination between various ministries, local authorities, law enforcement agencies, and third-sector organizations. Another key supranational reference document remains the Istanbul Convention (Ratification of Law 77/2013). Although it is an international treaty, Italy has adopted it as the legal basis for defining and combating forced marriage (Art. 37) and genital mutilation (Art. 38).

C) Agenda 2030 – GOAL 5.4

Achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls. Goal 5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services, infrastructure, and social protection policies, and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household, according to national characteristics.

The issue of unpaid care work, addressed in Goal 5.4 of the 2030 Agenda, is a crucial and cross-cutting challenge for Italy, with profound economic and social implications. The Italian situation, despite showing significant progress and formal commitment, still faces a considerable gap compared to the most virtuous European countries. Combining the 2030 Agenda's guidelines with concrete actions from the PNRR and the National Strategy, both laudable strengths and critical areas requiring attention are highlighted. A highly positive aspect is the explicit recognition of "unpaid care work and domestic work" as a burden that has historically fallen on women. The intention to "enhance" this work through the provision of public services, such as daycare centers and the strengthening of childcare centers for children aged 0-6 years, as envisaged by the PNRR, represents a fundamental step forward in freeing up time and encouraging female employment. Equally important is the emphasis on “shared responsibility” and the introduction of paternity leave measures, crucial elements in triggering a cultural shift in family and social dynamics.

The integrated approach, which combines infrastructure investments with economic incentives and tax breaks, demonstrates a willingness to act on multiple fronts simultaneously. While Italy is praised at the European level for integrating gender equality into the NRRP, one of the main criticisms concerns the limited resources dedicated specifically to these measures compared to the scale of the problem. The plan's effectiveness is also jeopardized by delays in implementation. Often, the physical construction of infrastructure, such as daycare centers, faces bureaucratic and structural delays that compromise adherence to established timelines. Another critical point lies in the difficulty of measuring the real impact of policies: only a small portion of the NRRP indicators allow for a concrete assessment of the impact on women's lives, making it difficult to understand whether the gender gap reduction goals are actually being achieved. The persistence of one of the lowest female employment rates in Europe confirms that structural challenges remain significant and that current efforts may not be sufficient.

D) Agenda 2030 – GOAL 5.5

Achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls. Goal 5.5 Ensure women's full and effective participation and equal leadership opportunities at all levels of decision-making in political, economic, and public life.

The action plan outlined for the National Strategy for Gender Equality 2021-2026 represents a concrete attempt to move from declarations of intent to a structural reform of power in Italy. Analyzing this measure reveals a picture of effective insights but also complex cultural obstacles to overcome. The most interesting aspect is that concrete levers are beginning to be used. The idea of ​​addressing university funding is a highly effective move: if the Ministry of University and Research (MUR) allocates less funding if it doesn't guarantee equal career opportunities, equality suddenly becomes a priority for everyone, not just women.

Likewise, the decision to make public the shortlists for top-level appointments is innovative. In Italy, many important positions are still decided in small circles; mandating transparency means giving a real chance to competent professionals. It's a way of asserting that merit must count more than informal networks. Although these measures are written into the National Strategy, almost none of them have been officially included among the binding commitments of the PNRR. These specific leadership reforms (such as equal opportunities or quotas on university committees) do not enjoy the "superpowers" of the PNRR. It seems that Europe's "breathing down our necks" is missing, while for PNRR projects Italy must meet strict deadlines to avoid losing funding, the same obligation does not apply to these measures. The risk is that reforms such as the one on female candidates' television visibility will remain on the back burner. Without the financial backing of the Recovery Plan, these innovations must rely solely on ordinary state resources, which have historically been scarce. There's a risk that some of these measures will remain on paper. Intervening on equal TV time for women is right, but if a woman doesn't have the support of her party or the resources to campaign, those extra minutes on the small screen will make little difference. Furthermore, in universities, there's a risk of creating joint committees simply "out of obligation," without truly implementing changes where a male-dominated culture still exists. This objective, being "outside" the driving force of the PNRR, risks progressing at a much slower pace than other reforms. This challenge hinges entirely on the willingness of individual ministries to pursue these commitments even without the pressure of European funding.

E) Agenda 2030 – GOAL 5.6

Achieve gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls. Goal 5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and rights, as agreed upon in the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action and the outcome documents of the review conferences.

The main strength of the measures introduced lies in the way Italy seeks to integrate women's health with job stability. The National Strategy links personal well-being to the ability to return to work after maternity leave, support for parents, and reducing the pension gap . Recognizing the economic cost of parenthood, and seeking to mitigate it, is a concrete step forward. Likewise, the measures envisaged by the PNRR to strengthen primary healthcare are fundamental: improving community services is crucial for preventive healthcare. The critical issues arise from the only indirect alignment between specific objective 5.6 and the implementation plans.

The PNRR, despite representing a tremendous opportunity, does not include direct and binding measures for sexual and reproductive health in the strict sense. It speaks generically of "strengthening healthcare," but not of dedicated funds for counseling centers, family planning, or ensuring the reproductive rights envisioned in the 2030 Agenda. The National Strategy focuses almost exclusively on economic impacts (income, employment) and less on the right to self-determination and universal access to sexual health services per se.

Without a central, directly funded initiative from the PNRR, there is a risk of maintaining significant regional disparities in effective access to these services, leaving the implementation of a fundamental right to the goodwill of individual local administrations. Italy is proceeding with a "perimeter-based" approach to SDG 5.6. Measures on leave and basic healthcare are positive, but the lack of a direct commitment in the PNRR to specific reproductive rights represents a gap that could slow down the full achievement of the goal by 2030.

F) objectives 5.a, 5.b and 5.c

The latter are means of implementation and their purpose is to provide the regulatory, technological, and financial framework to achieve all the specific results of Goal 5 (5.1 to 5.6). They are therefore not subdivisions of a single target, but rather the cross-cutting levers and enabling conditions for the entire goal. Specifically, they include: 5.a – Economic Reforms and Property Rights. This indirectly supports all goals, as economic independence is a prerequisite for empowerment. 5.b – Technology and ICT: Promotes the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) to foster women's empowerment. Greater connectivity and technological access can support education, access to health services (including reproductive health services covered in 5.6), and economic participation. 5.c – Sound Policies and Enforceable Legislation: Stresses the importance of adopting and strengthening effective and enforceable policies and laws to promote gender equality at all levels. This legal framework is the basis for combating discrimination (5.1), violence (5.2) and ensuring reproductive rights (5.6).

All measures translate into concrete actions (5.a). Consider the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP), which addresses housing deprivation: how many single-parent families, often headed by women, struggle with rent or housing? Intervening on public housing means providing stability, a safe home, which is the foundation for any other form of emancipation. At the same time, the National Strategy introduces dedicated microcredit, essential for low-income women or victims of violence, who struggle to access traditional banking channels. The goal here is clear: to provide concrete tools for economic independence. The section on skills and technology is perhaps the most modern and forward-looking (5.b). Italy is betting on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics).

It is recognized that the future lies in these disciplines, and that women have historically been underrepresented. A significant number of actions are highlighted: scholarships, targeted guidance, strengthening computer science in schools, even tax incentives for companies that digitally train women. The idea is to bridge a cultural and educational gap that begins in school, ensuring that women not only have access to technology, but also master it. Finally, there is the chapter on power and legislation (5.c). Here, the rules of the game are addressed. The goal is to strengthen existing policies to ensure they don't remain just fine words.

The legal definition of the gender pay gap is a crucial step towards bringing transparency to pay slips. Furthermore, gender quotas in public governing bodies and mandatory training for teachers on stereotypes are listed: measures that aim to change the culture from within, both in schools and public administrations. Italy is certainly attempting to do a comprehensive job. The PNRR acts as an accelerator for the most structural and funded measures, while the National Strategy covers the rest with legislative and cultural reforms. As of January 2026, the work is underway and progress is visible, but the real challenge will be ensuring that all these interventions, so diverse from each other, come together in a single, powerful movement towards real and lasting equality.

Some final reflections

The final reflection that arises from the comparative analysis of several strategic documents follows three epistemological lines

Using Document Analysis

1. The first is the use of documentary analysis as a form of social research and as a premise for public policy evaluation models based on knowledge of what already exists not only empirically but also in terms of documentary cogency. In a social research context, the document is not merely an information medium, but a true social fact. Analyzing administrative acts, calls for tenders, agreements, and legislative texts means reconstructing the "will" of an institution. Document cogency represents the set of constraints, obligations, and responsibilities that define the scope of a policy. Even before observing what happens in reality (empirical level), it is essential to understand what the law requires. Without this analysis, evaluation risks ignoring the normative framework within which officials and citizens are required to navigate.

Document analysis therefore serves as a logical premise for many evaluation models because it allows for the establishment of solid and objective knowledge of the existing situation. This approach offers three key advantages: i) the traceability of intentions. It allows for the extraction of the implicit "Theory of Change," i.e., the logical connection the decision maker has established between allocated resources and predefined objectives.

ii) cognitive sustainability. Avoid "starting from scratch" by capitalizing on evidence already produced in previous laws, programming acts, and even monitoring or evaluation reports.

iii) It provides the reference parameter for measuring the deviation between what was formally foreseen (binding) and what was actually achieved (empirical).

Highlight convergences and divergences

2. The second result is of a content-related nature: it highlights the convergences and divergences that emerge from the comparative analysis of multiple documents on the topics under study. The comparative analysis of GOAL 5 of the 2030 Agenda, the PNRR (National Recovery and Resilience Plan), and the National Strategy for Gender Equality allows for an integrated and synergistic vision, that is, it allows for the harmonization of global objectives (GOAL 5) with national priorities and financial resources (PNRR), ensuring that local actions contribute to a broader and more coherent framework.

It allows PNRR funds, which considers gender equality a cross-cutting priority, to be directed towards areas identified as crucial both internationally (violence, discrimination) and nationally (female employment, daycare centers), optimizing the impact of investments.

Furthermore, GOAL 5 provides general objectives (e.g., eliminating violence, ensuring equal rights to economic resources), while the National Strategy and the PNRR translate these principles into concrete measures, such as the gender equality certification system in companies or investments in the Women's Business Fund, with measurable targets for 2026.

The comparison highlights the specific monitoring tools (EIGE indicators, Gender Equality Plan GEP, periodic reports) provided by the different documents, allowing us to evaluate the effectiveness of the policies and identify delays or areas for improvement, such as the asymmetry of unpaid care work mentioned in the provided document.

Key findings

3. Finally, the following key findings on gender equality, a central theme for the stability of modern democracies, are outlined :

Gender equality implies equal rights, opportunities, and treatment, eliminating all discrimination. Women's empowerment is the process that gives women and girls decision-making power and control over their own lives. Equality is the necessary condition for empowerment to be achieved. The real challenge lies in substantive equality, not just the formal equality established by law. Material obstacles such as the asymmetric distribution of unpaid care work must be removed.

True equality requires welfare policies that promote gender-based responsibility sharing. Equality does not mean conforming to the male model. The perspective advanced, discussed by UN Women, suggests that equality is achieved only when specific differences are valued and respected. Knowledge of national and supranational strategic documents (such as the United Nations 2030 Agenda, Goal 5) is essential to guide decision-makers and implement targeted and binding actions. The text offers a comparative reading of three key documents, using Goal 5 of the 2030 Agenda as a reference dimension to analyze how different sources address the same issues.

Catina Balotta

References